Written by: Abdul Hamid Mohammed — Legal Consultant
Legal review: Mohamed Shehata — Legal Consultant
Published: September 20, 2026 | Last updated: October 2026
Last legal review: September 2026 (October 2026 update pending re-review)
In Dubai, certified true copies are requested for visa and immigration files, bank account opening and KYC checks, university admissions, company formation, free-zone compliance and international legal matters. This guide explains who can certify which type of document, the steps, what affects the cost, how long it takes and when MOFA attestation or embassy legalisation is needed on top.
Private Notary Dubai assists clients with true copy attestation from its office in Business Bay, with pickup and delivery within Dubai and the option to start the request online. The certification itself is always performed by the competent party that examines the original.
What is Certified True Copy Attestation in Dubai?
Certified true copy attestation in Dubai is the process of officially confirming that a photocopy of an original document is an exact, complete and unaltered replica. The certification is carried out by the party the law and the receiving body recognise for that type of document. That party inspects the original, compares it page by page with the copy, and then stamps, signs and dates the copy with a statement such as: “I certify that this is a true copy of the original document presented to me.”
The stamp identifies the certifying party, so that any bank, government department, embassy or employer that receives the copy can trace who verified it and when. This is what gives the copy its evidentiary weight. In our daily practice we see the same pattern repeatedly: a copy certified by the right party is accepted without question, while an uncertified, self-signed or wrongly certified photocopy is returned.
True copy attestation meaning: original document vs. certified true copy
- The original is the primary document issued by the competent authority (a passport office, a university, a licensing authority). It is the source of truth and is usually the only version that can be attested by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and embassies.
- The certified true copy is a verified duplicate that carries legal acceptance for many administrative purposes. It allows you to satisfy a requesting party without leaving your original with them.
Certified true copies are used whenever an authority needs proof of a document’s content and authenticity but does not want the responsibility of holding, storing or returning the original.
Who Certifies What: Official Documents vs. Private and Commercial Documents
The most common cause of a rejected copy is certification by the wrong party. The deciding question is simple: was the document issued by a government authority?
| Type of document | Examples | Who certifies the copy |
|---|---|---|
| Official documents (issued by a government authority or official body) | Passport, Emirates ID, birth, marriage and death certificates, degree certificates issued by an institution, trade licence | The authority that issued the document and/or the competent bodies, depending on the document. A lawyer cannot issue a certified true copy of these documents. |
| Private, legal and commercial documents | Contracts, agreements, shareholder and board resolutions, company records, letters and statements prepared by private parties | A licensed lawyer or notary public, accepted by banks, companies and institutions for compliance and documentation purposes. |
When Do You Need a Certified True Copy?
You need a certified true copy in Dubai whenever a receiving party requires verified proof of a document’s authenticity without the original. This is common in local and cross-border procedures where submitting originals is risky, impractical or simply not permitted.
🛂 Immigration and visas
Visa applications, residency files, family sponsorship and citizenship applications abroad frequently require certified copies of passports, birth certificates and marriage certificates rather than originals.
🏦 Banking and finance
Banks request certified copies of identity documents, proof of address and financial records for account opening, loans and KYC reviews. For accounts operated by a representative, see our guide to a banking power of attorney in the UAE.
🎓 Education and universities
Universities and equivalency bodies ask for certified copies of degrees, diplomas and transcripts for admissions, scholarship applications and qualification recognition.
🏢 Corporate and free-zone matters
Company formation, shareholder KYC, bank onboarding, tenders and regulatory filings use certified copies of licences, the memorandum of association, board resolutions and shareholder passports.
International transactions. When dealing with foreign authorities, embassies or overseas courts, a certified copy is often the first link in the chain. It lets you keep your original in the UAE while the copy travels through consular attestation and legalisation abroad.
Types of Documents That Can Be Certified in Dubai
A wide range of documents can be certified as true copies in Dubai, covering personal, academic, financial and corporate needs. What changes from one category to another is who certifies the copy.
| Category | Typical documents | Who certifies the copy | Commonly requested by |
|---|---|---|---|
| Identity | Passport (data page and visa pages), Emirates ID, driving licence, residence visa page | Official documents: the issuing authority and/or the competent bodies for the document | Banks, immigration authorities, employers, free zones |
| Civil status | Birth, marriage, divorce and death certificates | Official documents: the issuing authority and/or the competent bodies | Foreign immigration offices, courts, insurers |
| Academic | Degrees, diplomas, transcripts, professional licences | Official documents: the issuing institution or authority and/or the competent bodies | Universities, equivalency and licensing bodies, employers |
| Financial | Bank statements, salary certificates, audited accounts | The issuing bank, employer or auditor; a licensed lawyer may certify copies of private financial records where the receiving party accepts it | Foreign banks, visa offices, landlords abroad |
| Corporate | Trade licence and certificate of incorporation (official); MOA, board or shareholders’ resolutions, contracts (private and commercial); powers of attorney (notarised) | Licence and certificate: the issuing authority. MOA, resolutions and contracts: licensed lawyer or notary public. Notarised documents: the notary public | Banks, free-zone authorities, foreign registries, tender committees |
| Address | DEWA or other utility bills, Ejari tenancy contract | The issuing provider or competent body; confirm with the receiving party before certifying | Banks and brokers (proof of address), foreign authorities |
True copy attestation by document type: what each one needs
Every document type has its own practical rule. From our daily casework, these are the points that most often decide whether a copy is accepted:
Passport copy. The most requested item, and an official document. The copy must be certified by the competent party for a passport, not by a lawyer. Most receiving parties want the data page and, for UAE residents, the current visa page. Check with the receiving party which party’s certification it accepts before you start.
Birth, marriage and death certificates. These are official documents, so the certification comes from the issuing authority and/or the competent bodies. If the certificate itself was issued abroad, the receiving party may want to see that it was legalised for the UAE before accepting a certified copy. For related declarations, see our guides on the declaration of parentage, proof of marriage continuity and the UAE divorce declaration.
Degrees, diplomas and transcripts. These are issued by the institution, so certification comes from the issuing institution and/or the competent bodies. Multi-page transcripts must be certified on every page, not only the first. If the qualification will be used abroad, ask the receiving institution whether it also needs MOFA attestation of the original.
Bank statements. Statements are issued by the bank, so a bank-stamped original is the safest starting point. E-statements downloaded from online banking are a grey area; where the receiving party is strict, obtain a bank-stamped statement rather than relying on a printed copy.
Board resolutions and commercial documents. These are private and commercial documents, so a licensed lawyer or notary public can certify the copy. Corporate documents are usually certified as a set. Foreign registries and banks often want the resolution itself notarised first, then a certified copy of the notarised version. Our guides on board resolution notarisation in Dubai and the business power of attorney in the UAE explain that sequence.
Who Can Certify a True Copy in the UAE?
In the UAE, certified true copies are issued only by parties recognised by law and accepted by the receiving body. The profession of notary public, and the private notaries licensed alongside it, is governed by Federal Decree-Law No. (20) of 2022 Regulating the Notary Profession, in force since December 2022, which replaced the earlier 2013 notary law. Lawyers are licensed under the federal advocacy legislation published by the Ministry of Justice.
🏛️ The issuing authority and competent bodies
For official documents, the certified copy must come from the authority that issued the document and/or the competent bodies, depending on the document. A lawyer cannot issue a certified true copy of an official document. This is often the strongest form for use abroad.
⚖️ Licensed lawyers (advocates)
Lawyers licensed in the UAE can also certify copies of original documents, particularly for legal, commercial and administrative purposes. Their certification is widely accepted by banks, companies and institutions that require verified copies for compliance and documentation purposes. This does not extend to official documents issued by a government authority.
📜 Notary public (Dubai Courts)
The notary public at Dubai Courts can authenticate copies of documents it holds on file, such as a previously notarised MOA or power of attorney, and issues notarised copies where the receiving party requires a court-level stamp.
🚫 Not accepted
Typing centres, translation offices without a legal licence, employers’ HR departments and self-signed copies do not produce a certified true copy recognised by banks or government bodies in the UAE.
Private Notary Dubai’s role is to identify the correct route for your document, prepare your documents, verify that the originals are in order, and arrange the certification with the competent party. The stamp and signature are always those of the lawyer, notary or authority that examined the original. Read our FAQ on private notary services in the UAE for how the private notary model works.
Step-by-Step Process to Get a Certified True Copy
Getting a certified true copy in Dubai is straightforward when the right route is chosen at the start. The steps below reflect how the process runs in practice.
Certified True Copy Attestation Cost in Dubai: What Determines the Fee
The cost of true copy attestation in Dubai is set per document and per service level rather than as a single flat rate, and it varies between providers. We do not publish a price list in this guide because fees change and depend on your file; contact us on WhatsApp for a quotation based on your documents. The factors below are what actually move the figure.
| Cost factor | How it affects the fee |
|---|---|
| Type of document and certifying party | Official documents are certified by the issuing authority or competent body, whose fees are set by that body. Lawyer or notary certification of private and commercial documents is a separate professional fee. |
| Number of pages and copies | A 30-page document certified on every page costs more than a one-page letter. Multiple identical sets for different recipients are priced per set. |
| Adding MOFA attestation or embassy legalisation | Government and consular fees are set by the authority concerned and are separate from the certification fee. Embassy fees differ widely by country. |
| Standard vs. urgent handling | Urgent handling matters mainly when MOFA or embassy steps are added, where express channels carry higher government charges. |
| Pickup and delivery | Collection and return of originals within Dubai is priced separately from the certification. |
| Legal translation | If the receiving party needs an Arabic or English version, certified legal translation is a separate service with its own fee. |
How Long Does Certified True Copy Attestation Take?
The time required depends on the document, the certifying party and whether the certification is the whole job or only the first step of an attestation chain.
- Private and commercial documents (lawyer or notary). When the original is presented and the copies are clean, the certified copy is normally issued within the same visit or, for pickup requests, within the same working day. Large sets may take a few hours longer for page-by-page comparison.
- Official documents. The timing is set by the issuing authority or competent body, and we cannot commit to a date on its behalf. Ask us for the expected timeline once we know the document.
- International use. If MOFA attestation and embassy legalisation follow, the total time is governed by those authorities. MOFA’s digital channel is fast; embassy legalisation can take from a day to several weeks depending on the country. Our guide on using a UAE document outside the UAE explains what to expect for each stage.
Need a certified true copy in Dubai?
Send us a photo of the document you need certified and tell us where it will be submitted. We will confirm which party must certify it, what is required, and arrange pickup within Dubai if you prefer.
Online and Remote True Copy Attestation in the UAE
Searches for “online true copy attestation UAE” are common, so it is worth being precise about what can and cannot be done remotely. Unlike a declaration or power of attorney, which can be notarised fully online via live video call, a certified true copy depends on the certifying party physically inspecting the original. A screen share or a scan is not an original.
| Question | How it works in practice |
|---|---|
| Can I start the request online? | Yes. Send the document details and the purpose on WhatsApp or through the website; the correct certifying route and requirements are confirmed before anyone travels. |
| Is video-call verification enough? | No. The certifying party must hold the original. Video calls are used for notarised declarations and POAs, not for true copies. |
| How does the original reach the certifier? | In person at the office, or by pickup and delivery within Dubai. Clients outside Dubai can send originals by secure courier; they are returned with the certified copies. |
| Which documents cannot be done remotely? | Any case where the receiving party or the competent authority requires the holder to appear in person must be completed in person. |
| How is the certified copy delivered? | Stamped paper copies by hand or courier, plus a scanned PDF of the stamped pages on request for email submissions. |
For a broader look at what is possible without visiting a notary office, see our article on e-notarisation in the UAE and the guide to giving a power of attorney from abroad.
Where to Get True Copy Attestation in the UAE (Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Sharjah and Beyond)
A lawyer’s certification of a private or commercial document is not tied to one emirate: a copy certified by a UAE-licensed lawyer in Dubai can be presented in Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, Ajman, Ras Al Khaimah, Fujairah and Umm Al Quwain, subject to the receiving party’s acceptance. What differs by emirate is the notary public and the government counter you would use if a court-level stamp is required. Official documents follow the rules of the authority that issued them.
| Emirate | Notary public authority | Lawyer-certified copy (private and commercial documents) via Private Notary Dubai |
|---|---|---|
| Dubai | Dubai Courts notary public | Office in Business Bay; pickup and delivery across Dubai, including Al Barsha, Deira, JLT and Marina |
| Abu Dhabi | Abu Dhabi Judicial Department (ADJD) | Courier of originals to Dubai and return, or visit the office |
| Sharjah | Sharjah Judicial Department | Courier or office visit |
| Ajman, Fujairah, Umm Al Quwain | Ministry of Justice notary public | Courier or office visit |
| Ras Al Khaimah | Ras Al Khaimah Courts | Courier or office visit |
If you are searching for “true copy attestation near me” in Dubai, the practical answer is that the location of the certifier matters less than whether the certification is done by the right party for your document and whether the receiving party will accept it. Confirm the second point first.
Certified True Copy vs. Self-Attested Copy vs. Notarised Copy
These three terms are constantly confused, and the confusion causes rejected applications. Here is the distinction as it applies in the UAE.
| Type of copy | Who signs it | Legal weight in the UAE | Typical use |
|---|---|---|---|
| Self-attested photocopy | The document holder writes “true copy” and signs | None. It is a personal statement, not a certification | Some overseas application forms (India, for example) ask for it; not accepted by UAE banks or authorities |
| Certified true copy | For official documents: the issuing authority and/or competent bodies. For private and commercial documents: a UAE-licensed lawyer or notary who saw the original | Recognised evidence that the copy matches the original | Banks, universities, free zones, employers, many foreign authorities |
| Notarised copy | The notary public (Dubai Courts or the emirate’s judicial authority) | Court-level authentication; the notary’s stamp is what MOFA attests | Documents entering the MOFA and embassy chain, court filings, some registries abroad |
In everyday UAE usage, “attested copy”, “certified copy” and “true copy” mean the same thing: a certified reproduction of an original. “Notarised” is narrower and refers to the notary public specifically. If a foreign authority writes “notarised copy” on its checklist, ask whether another form of certification is acceptable before you pay for the court route; sometimes it is, sometimes it is not. Our guide on how notarisation works in the UAE explains what the notary public actually does.
How Long Is a Certified True Copy Valid?
There is no statutory expiry date on a certified true copy in the UAE. The certification records the fact that, on a given date, the copy matched the original. Whether that is still good enough later is decided by the receiving party, not by law.
- Banks and financial institutions commonly require certified copies dated within the last three to six months, particularly for proof of address and KYC refresh cycles.
- Immigration authorities abroad often specify a maximum age for supporting documents in the application guidance itself; check the checklist for the exact window.
- Corporate registries and free zones usually accept a certified copy as long as the underlying document (the licence, the MOA) has not itself been amended.
- Re-certify when the original changes. A certified copy of a passport that has since been renewed, or of an MOA that has since been amended, is no longer useful even if the stamp is recent.
When in doubt, ask the receiving party whether they have a date limit and certify shortly before submission rather than months in advance.
Certified True Copy vs. MOFA Attestation vs. Embassy Legalisation
These terms are often used together, but they are three different levels of verification, performed by three different bodies, for three different purposes.
| Process | What it confirms | Authority | When you need it |
|---|---|---|---|
| Certified true copy | The copy matches the original | Issuing authority and/or competent bodies (official documents); licensed lawyer or notary public (private and commercial documents) | Local submissions; first step for international use |
| MOFA attestation | The UAE authority’s stamp or signature is genuine | Ministry of Foreign Affairs (UAE) | Any official use of a UAE document outside the country |
| Embassy legalisation | The destination country recognises the document | Embassy or consulate of the destination country in the UAE | Final step before use abroad |
MOFA attestation and MOHRE attestation: not the same thing
A recurring point of confusion is the difference between MOFA and MOHRE. MOFA attestation (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) is the general authentication of documents for use abroad, or of foreign documents for use in the UAE. MOHRE attestation (Ministry of Human Resources and Emiratisation) relates to employment matters: employment contracts, labour approvals and work-permit documentation processed through the Ministry’s system. A certified true copy of a degree or passport for a foreign bank goes through MOFA, not MOHRE. If your requirement is employment-related, the relevant path is the MOHRE contract and permit process, which is outside the scope of true copy attestation.
Sequence matters. MOFA attests the stamp of a UAE authority it recognises, which for copies normally means the notary public. A lawyer-certified copy on its own may not be accepted for MOFA attestation; when the document is going abroad through the MOFA chain, the route depends on the document, so confirm it before certification and avoid paying twice. See our guide to document attestation in Dubai for the full chain.
Is a Certified True Copy Accepted Internationally?
A certified true copy can be accepted internationally, but acceptance depends on the destination country, the type of document and the purpose. Private institutions abroad, such as banks, universities and companies, may accept a certified copy where it was certified by the party they recognise for that document, because they only need assurance that the copy matches the original.
For government or court use outside the UAE, a certified copy alone is usually not enough. The document must pass through the full chain: notarisation where required, MOFA attestation in the UAE, and legalisation at the destination country’s embassy or consulate. The UAE is not a party to the Hague Apostille Convention, so an apostille cannot be issued on a UAE document; embassy legalisation is the route. For destination-specific steps, see our guides on attestation for Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Bangladesh and the United States, and the overview of international use of UAE documents.
The reverse also applies: a foreign document certified abroad and intended for use in the UAE must be attested by the UAE embassy in the issuing country and then by MOFA in the UAE, and often translated into Arabic by a certified legal translator. Documents that skip a step are a common cause of the non-acceptance problems we see in practice.
Common Mistakes with True Copy Attestation
- Asking a lawyer to certify an official document. A lawyer cannot issue a certified true copy of a document issued by a government authority, such as a passport or a degree. It must be certified by the issuing authority and/or the competent bodies for that document.
- Certifying a copy of a copy. Only a copy taken from the original can be certified. A stamped copy of an earlier stamped copy is routinely rejected.
- Stamping only the first page. Transcripts, contracts and MOAs must be certified on every page, or bound and sealed as a set.
- Bringing a scan instead of the original. The certifying party cannot certify what it has not seen.
- Certifying before confirming the route. If the receiving party needs a notarised copy for MOFA, a lawyer-certified copy is a wasted step.
- Ignoring language. Some UAE authorities require the certification wording in Arabic, and some foreign authorities require it in English. Ask first.
- Old certifications. A copy certified a year ago is often refused by banks with a recency rule.
- Wrong pages. A passport data page without the current UAE visa page, or a licence without the partner schedule, is incomplete for most corporate submissions.
How Private Notary Dubai Assists with Certified True Copies
- Identifying whether your document is official or private and commercial, and which party must certify it.
- Reviewing your originals and confirming which pages and how many sets the receiving party actually needs.
- Arranging certification of copies of private, legal and commercial documents by a licensed lawyer in Dubai through our certified true copy service, with paper copies and a scanned PDF delivered.
- Guiding you on the issuing authority or competent body for official documents and on the steps that party requires.
- Pickup and delivery of originals within Dubai, and secure courier handling for clients elsewhere in the UAE.
- Advising whether your case needs the notary public route, tenancy contract attestation, or MOFA and embassy legalisation on top, and coordinating those steps.
- Arranging certified legal translation into Arabic or English where the receiving party requires it.
- Preparing companion documents that are frequently requested with certified copies, such as special powers of attorney, an affidavit of support, a single status declaration or a declaration of monthly income, all of which can be notarised online by video call.
Important notes
- The certification is performed and signed by the authority, lawyer or notary who examined the original; Private Notary Dubai facilitates the process.
- A lawyer cannot issue a certified true copy of an official document issued by a government authority.
- Requirements may differ depending on the document, the emirate and the competent authority.
- Final acceptance of a certified true copy rests with the authority to which it is submitted.
- Where MOFA attestation or embassy legalisation is required, timelines depend on those authorities.
- Government and consular fees are set by the relevant authority and are separate from professional fees.
Frequently Asked Questions About True Copy Attestation in Dubai
What is meant by a true copy of a document?
A true copy is a reproduction of an original document that an authorised party has compared with the original and certified as complete and identical. Who is authorised depends on the document: the issuing authority or competent body for official documents, and a licensed lawyer or notary for private, legal and commercial documents.
What is true copy attestation?
True copy attestation is the process by which an authorised party confirms that a photocopy is an exact and accurate reproduction of the original document presented, and records that confirmation on the copy with a stamp, signature and date. The authorised party differs for official documents and for private or commercial ones.
Can a lawyer certify a true copy of my passport, degree or birth certificate?
No. A lawyer cannot issue a certified true copy of an official document, meaning one issued by a government authority. That certification must come from the authority that issued the document and/or the competent bodies, depending on the document. Lawyers certify copies of private, legal and commercial documents.
How can I get a certified true copy in Dubai?
First identify whether your document is official or private. Official documents are certified by the issuing authority and/or the competent bodies for that document. Copies of private, legal and commercial documents can be certified by a licensed lawyer or notary. Private Notary Dubai confirms the correct route before you start.
How do I know if a document is a certified true copy?
Look for a statement that the copy is a true copy of the original, together with the certifying party’s name or authority, signature, stamp and date. For lawyer-certified copies this includes the lawyer’s and firm’s details. Without these elements the document is only a photocopy.
How can I verify the authenticity of a certified true copy?
Contact the authority, law firm or notary named on the stamp and quote the date and document; licensed firms keep a record of what they certify. For notarised copies, the transaction can be checked with the issuing court, and MOFA-attested documents can be verified at verify.mofa.ae.
What is the difference between a certified true copy and an original?
The original is the document issued by the competent authority. A certified true copy is a reproduction that an authorised party has confirmed matches the original. It is accepted in place of the original for many administrative purposes, but some authorities still insist on seeing the original.
Is a certified true copy the same as a notarised copy?
Not exactly. A certified true copy may be certified by a lawyer or, for official documents, by the issuing authority; a notarised copy is issued by the notary public. Both confirm the copy matches the original, but only the notary’s stamp is normally the one MOFA attests for use abroad.
How much does true copy attestation cost in Dubai?
Fees depend on the document type, the number of documents and pages, whether MOFA or embassy attestation is added, and whether pickup, delivery or translation is required. Government and consular fees are set by the authority concerned. Contact us for a quotation based on your documents.
How long does certified true copy attestation take?
For private and commercial documents certified by a lawyer, certification is usually completed within the same working day once the original is presented. For official documents, timing is set by the issuing authority or competent body. MOFA attestation and embassy legalisation add further time, depending on the authority and country.
How long is a certified copy valid for?
There is no legal expiry date. Validity is decided by the receiving party; banks commonly ask for copies dated within three to six months, and any copy should be renewed if the underlying original has changed.
Can I get a certified true copy online?
You can start the request online and arrange pickup within Dubai, but the certifying party must examine the physical original. Video-call verification is available for notarised declarations and powers of attorney, not for true copies of documents.
Is a certified true copy accepted internationally?
Often by private institutions, for documents they accept on that basis. For government or court use abroad, the document usually also needs MOFA attestation and embassy legalisation. The UAE is not part of the Apostille Convention, so embassy legalisation replaces the apostille.
Who can provide a certified true copy in the UAE?
For official documents, the issuing authority and/or the competent bodies depending on the document. For private, legal and commercial documents, lawyers licensed in the UAE and the notary public of each emirate’s judicial authority. Typing centres and self-signed copies are not recognised.
Abdul Hamid Mohammed — Legal Consultant, Private Notary Dubai
Abdul Hamid is a legal consultant with extensive experience in providing legal advice in the United Arab Emirates. His expertise focuses on legal drafting, resolving commercial disputes, and drafting and reviewing corporate and employment contracts.
Legal review: Mohamed Shehata — Legal Consultant. This article reflects the team’s daily casework assisting individuals and companies in Dubai with certified copies, notarisation and document attestation.
Conclusion
True copy attestation in Dubai is a simple but essential step that lets individuals and businesses use verified copies of passports, certificates and corporate documents without putting the originals at risk. What decides success is choosing the right certifying party for the document: the issuing authority and/or the competent bodies for official documents, and a licensed lawyer or notary public for private, legal and commercial documents. Add MOFA attestation and embassy legalisation only when the destination requires it.
If you need certified true copy attestation in Dubai, Private Notary Dubai will confirm the requirements for your specific document and receiving party, identify who must certify it, and assist you through the process.
💬 Request a certified true copy on WhatsApp
Official Sources
- Federal Decree-Law No. (20) of 2022 Regulating the Notary Profession — UAE Legislation portal
- Notary Public Profession Legislation — Ministry of Justice, UAE
- Dubai Courts — notary public services
- Abu Dhabi Judicial Department — notary public
- verify.mofa.ae — Ministry of Foreign Affairs attestation verification
Abdul Hamid is a legal consultant with extensive experience in providing legal advice in the United Arab Emirates. His expertise focuses on legal drafting, resolving commercial disputes, and drafting and reviewing corporate and employment contracts.